Interviews and Interrogations Policy Free Essays

Interviews and Interrogations Policy In the world of security, interviews, and interrogations play a key role in solving a case or putting a face to a crime committed. They can be similar but they also have several differences. Interviews and interrogations also come with legal issues because of the way they are conducted. We will write a custom essay sample on Interviews and Interrogations Policy or any similar topic only for you Order Now Putting a security policy in place within the organization can help guide security personnel when conducting interviews and interrogations. Interviews and Interrogations Security interviews and interrogations are a way to gather information and facts regarding a case. They both use forms of conversation to attain the most information from the person they are talking to. Establishing a relationship on some level will help both an interview and interrogation. There are major differences between interviews and interrogations. Interviews and interrogations are two very different things. Suspects are interrogated; witnesses are interviewed (Stephens, (n. d. ). Interviews Interviews are informal meetings with a person to gain information regarding a case. The person being interviewed should feel relaxed in order to be open and willingly give information that will help the security officer on the case. They should take place as soon as possible so the details are fresh in the person’s memory and an outside party cannot sway their thoughts. Interviews are used when talking to victims, witnesses, and family members or friends. People being interviewed are normally open and willing to give information regarding the case or personnel under question if they do not believe they are being threatened or intimidated. People being interviewed can help the security personnel gain insight and key details to piece together the bigger puzzle or possibly solving the crime. Respect, truthfulness, and an open-ended conversation should get the interview going in a positive direction and allow the interviewee a chance to express openly and share what they know. Interviews can turn into an interrogation at anytime if the security personnel feels that the person being interviewed has a role in the crime or is gives another reason for doubts. Interrogations Interrogations are used to gain a confession or attain details from a suspect regarding a crime. Interrogations use an accusatory tone by the interrogator to obtain a confession and can be perceived as hostile. Personnel being interrogated are usually unwilling to give information they know. Interrogators can use persuasion, confrontational tactics, and empathy to procure a confession from the perpetrator or attain more information about the crime. â€Å"Each interrogation is a two-way process in which the subjects are also reading the interrogator. They will read opportunity if they sense any discomfort on the interviewer’s part. Therefore, within the legal limits of what is permissible, everything about the interrogation, including the timing, should be set up to give the interviewer the upper hand and to make the subject feel at a disadvantage (McDonough, 2005). The Miranda Rights must be read before beginning an interrogation to use the information given in court and to give the person being interrogated a chance at having a lawyer present. Legal Issues Coercing a confession or using forms of trickery during an interrogation can cause issues in a trial. There is a fine line between pressing for a confession when they know the truth and pressing for a confession when they are shooting from the hip. They need to have a fairly certain belief that the person in question is at fault in some way or form before hard pressing him or her for a confession. Telling a suspect that if they confess they are free to go or to show a suspect a false report of any kind trying to implicate the suspect is also ways of falsely trying to coerce a confession. Another legal issue that could arise during an interview or interrogation is if the Miranda rights are not read or broken any time after they are read and not having a written waiver of rights. Detaining someone for an unreasonable amount of time or without reason is also frowned upon. Another legal issue can happen if security personnel questions a juvenile without their parent or legal guardian present. Security Policy for conducting Interviews and interrogations The first step before you start an interview or interrogation is to know the situation. Whoever will be asking the questions need to know what they are going to ask before they even get into the room. You need to do your research on the subject and the situation that the suspect/witness have found themselves in. When conducting interviews and interrogation you will not work alone. The main person conducting the interview and interrogation will always make sure there is someone present with them when they are asking questions. This is to ensure that you have a witness to your questions and actions at all times. There will be a video camera and listening device (if available) during the interview and interrogation process. Even if the interview or interrogation is being recorded, you should keep notes at all times. These notes will help if there is a glitch in the recording or the video and be able to quickly ask any follow-up questions at the end without reviewing the tape. At the end of the interview or interrogation, your main goal is to get a sworn written statement of what happened and why there was a security violation. Interview The purpose of an interview is to discover certain information about different things. Each situation is different! That is why you need to know the situation before you go into the interview. In most interviews the facts have not came out yet. You are trying to discover the facts from the suspect or witness. During the interview, the setting of the room needs to remain calm so the interview can continue to move forward. The purpose of the interview is to find the facts, so ask questions that will lead to getting the correct facts. When interviewing people, they are not always the main suspects, so do not treat them as if they are. Keep them talking until the facts are found. Once you have the facts, then begins the interrogation phase. Interrogation The purpose of an interrogation is to find what happened and who had what role in the crime committed. You already have most of the facts so then you want to find out who did it. If you have the main suspect in the interrogation room you are working on getting them to confess to the security violation they committed. You need to gather your thoughts and prepare yourself before you enter the room and begin the interrogation. The setting in interrogations is strict, authoritative, and formal. You will be making accusations but do not coerce the suspect into a confession; it may fall through later in court. You have the facts so you can accuse the suspect of what you think they did. Continue talking to them about the situation. By continuing to talk to them and asking them the right question they will usually slip and tell you the truth. Once the truth is revealed and you have the right suspect, you need them to write down what happened in a sworn statement. Once the sworn statement is filled out, you hold the suspect or book them. Conclusion An investigator is often faced with a wide range of information when planning and conducting a suspect interview, such as statements from witnesses and victims, technical evidence (e. . DNA, fingerprints), information regarding the arrest and custody and ‘soft’ information (e. g. rumors, tips from informers) (Hakkanen 2009). Even with all this information, sometimes catching the right person is a challenge. With the right questions asked to the right people, either in an interview or interrogation setting, you usually can find out the right answers. Be sure to always withhold yourself to high standards so that your integrity and actions are not questioned after a security interview or interrogation, and the case is not jeopardized. How to cite Interviews and Interrogations Policy, Essay examples

Understanding the Films of Andrzej Wajda Essay Example For Students

Understanding the Films of Andrzej Wajda Essay Portraying intense love relationships throughout his war trilogy, Wajda creates significant romantic subplots that question if true love can exist during periods of war. Across these three films, Wajda highlights the idea that rules no longer apply to romantic relationships when love and politics mix. In A Generation, Wajda speaks on behalf of the tormented nation of Poland, and tells the stories of the masses of people bound by a common fate. Stach, who is the main character and the narrator of the film, is nothing but a young boy who is toying with danger. The young but more enlightened Dorota is the beautiful Communist that provokes Stach to join the anti-Nazi organization. The relationship that develops between Stach and Dorota is equal in meaning to that of Stach’s commitment to the cause: it is all a childish game. Drawn in by Dorota’s energetic spirit, Stach only becomes infatuated with her, initially that is where his motivation comes from and not the actual movement which she represents. Throughout the film Wajda creates this idea of collectivity when in actuality the characters were never a genuine group to begin with; not even Dorota and Stach in their proclamations of love. This is further conveyed in the scene where Stach, who has just left Dorota, is inside of a large empty heart that reads, â€Å"I shall wait for you. † This works as a premonition of what is to come; Stach stands alone in his childish games and will do no waiting for Dorota. In the end, little tears were shed for their collapsed relationship, Dorota’s capture is just the reality of the struggle and the Stach must persist in the fight. Kanal, the second in Wajda’s war trilogy, features meticulously combined narratives while following a band of surviving Polish Home Army soldiers in their last hours of life trying to avoid capture from the German Nazis. Before the soldiers begin their journey into misery and suffering in the sewers there is a great deal of sensuality. A brief period of relief offers us a chance to see them in their last hour of relaxation, playing music, contacting loved ones, sharing intimacies and striving as best they could to achieve some kind of normality, if there was any to strive for at all. During this period, Wise and Halinka are interrupted in bed together by Korab, â€Å"Now is not the time,† in which Wise respondes, â€Å"Now is precisely the time for it. † This statement suggests that Wise is more than aware that the fight has reached a point where winning is actually impossible, but he refrains from adding, â€Å"because we are going to die anyway,† at the end of it. This narrative is justified further when looking at the quote, â€Å"This lack of any sort of vision led him to see the world as a place in which nothing existed outside of naked force. It was a world of decline and fall. (Alpha, 113) In Kanal, Wajda presents to us a shattered society where romantic relationships have become almost savagely surreal; they only happen in moments of weakness and self delusion and continued till it collapses. This is why the character of Halinka, who declares, â€Å"It is easier to die when you are in love,† is so superbly identifiable. Like h er, the audience is given hope for the future through these romantic subplots (even while knowing beforehand that everyone was going to die) and our wishful hope is cruelly deceived as Wajda reminds us that, due to the circumstances, love cannot and will not save them. .u5a03d2a705793d08ce2ffef97c626622 , .u5a03d2a705793d08ce2ffef97c626622 .postImageUrl , .u5a03d2a705793d08ce2ffef97c626622 .centered-text-area { min-height: 80px; position: relative; } .u5a03d2a705793d08ce2ffef97c626622 , .u5a03d2a705793d08ce2ffef97c626622:hover , .u5a03d2a705793d08ce2ffef97c626622:visited , .u5a03d2a705793d08ce2ffef97c626622:active { border:0!important; } .u5a03d2a705793d08ce2ffef97c626622 .clearfix:after { content: ""; display: table; clear: both; } .u5a03d2a705793d08ce2ffef97c626622 { display: block; transition: background-color 250ms; webkit-transition: background-color 250ms; width: 100%; opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #95A5A6; } .u5a03d2a705793d08ce2ffef97c626622:active , .u5a03d2a705793d08ce2ffef97c626622:hover { opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #2C3E50; } .u5a03d2a705793d08ce2ffef97c626622 .centered-text-area { width: 100%; position: relative ; } .u5a03d2a705793d08ce2ffef97c626622 .ctaText { border-bottom: 0 solid #fff; color: #2980B9; font-size: 16px; font-weight: bold; margin: 0; padding: 0; text-decoration: underline; } .u5a03d2a705793d08ce2ffef97c626622 .postTitle { color: #FFFFFF; font-size: 16px; font-weight: 600; margin: 0; padding: 0; width: 100%; } .u5a03d2a705793d08ce2ffef97c626622 .ctaButton { background-color: #7F8C8D!important; color: #2980B9; border: none; border-radius: 3px; box-shadow: none; font-size: 14px; font-weight: bold; line-height: 26px; moz-border-radius: 3px; text-align: center; text-decoration: none; text-shadow: none; width: 80px; min-height: 80px; background: url(https://artscolumbia.org/wp-content/plugins/intelly-related-posts/assets/images/simple-arrow.png)no-repeat; position: absolute; right: 0; top: 0; } .u5a03d2a705793d08ce2ffef97c626622:hover .ctaButton { background-color: #34495E!important; } .u5a03d2a705793d08ce2ffef97c626622 .centered-text { display: table; height: 80px; padding-left : 18px; top: 0; } .u5a03d2a705793d08ce2ffef97c626622 .u5a03d2a705793d08ce2ffef97c626622-content { display: table-cell; margin: 0; padding: 0; padding-right: 108px; position: relative; vertical-align: middle; width: 100%; } .u5a03d2a705793d08ce2ffef97c626622:after { content: ""; display: block; clear: both; } READ: Film Study - The Godfather I and II EssayAshes and Diamonds is the final installment in Wajda’s war trilogy. This film reveals just how convoluted and difficult the reality of Wajda’s generation was. Set on the last day of the war, this film follows Maciek, a young Home Army soldier to remind us that while the end of the war may have meant the end of some hardships, it most definitely did not mean an immediate return to peace. Maciek is battle scarred and lacks self-control, a lack which causes his morals to be suspended between a past and a future Poland. When he is assigned to assassinate a Communist official his morals are tested. In the midst of carrying out this mission, Maciek meets Krystyna, a blond bartender. In order to attract her attention he carries out a rather flirtatious trick with his mug and then things become complicated. They immediately fall in love (or claim to) and quickly go to bed together, and this is when Maciek begins to question his devotion to the cause. Can he lead a â€Å"normal† life with Krystyna or should he continue a life of resistance? Without Krystyna, Maciek does not have the former option. Like Szczuka, Maciek is only a boy with a gun and he is too weak to leave the cause on his own, Krystyna offers that escape. Maciek says to Andrzej with Krystyna in the background, â€Å"Nothing in this country is serious anymore. † Offering the notion that he is only using love as an excuse to escape to benefit him; he is doing his own thing. Through his flirtatious charm he proves to be doing just that: flirting with the idea of restoring his moral responsibility through a new conventional life of love. In the end, his words and actions toward Krystyna prove to mean nothing. Maciek is no longer trapped in constant fluctuation of not knowing what â€Å"doing his own thing† and a â€Å"normal† life. He now understands what doing his own thing is; he must kill and his enjoyment of doing so causes him to overact which confirms to be deeply destructive. Wajda’s three war films contain intense and complicated romantic subplots that connect on similar levels. Time and again, Wajda ultimately asks the question: does love save? To put it simply, it does not. It did not save Maciek and Krystyna. It did not save the many characters in Kanal. And it did not save Dorota and Stach. In a time of war where social relationships fall away, love exists only as an escape; but it will not rescue you.

King Leopold’s Ghost A Review Essay Example

King Leopold’s Ghost: A Review Paper King Leopold’s Ghost, provides a historical account of economic and political systems in colonial Africa.   It is a tale of greed and grave hunger for power as well as heroism in the midst of terror. Adam Hochschild examines how the European drive for territories and possessions in the late nineteenth century justified the essence of colonialism.   Hochschild presents why the â€Å"civilizing† mission of Europe in Africa was deemed the powerful as morally right. Belgium’s King Leopold II, as the first secretary of the International African Association in 1876, defended colonialism by saying â€Å"To open civilization to the only part of our globe which it has not yet penetrated, to pierce the darkness which hangs over the entire peoples is, I dare say, a crusade worthy of this century of progress.† (Hochschild, 1999, p. 44) Saying colonialism is necessary in the realization of civilization and development, Leopold imprisoned Congo under his personal rule beginning 1885 until his death in 1908.   Using a complex scheme of political ploys and corruption, bribes and lobbying, he obtained international recognition for his colony and established a system of virtual slavery and tyranny in Congo. We will write a custom essay sample on King Leopold’s Ghost: A Review specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now We will write a custom essay sample on King Leopold’s Ghost: A Review specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer We will write a custom essay sample on King Leopold’s Ghost: A Review specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer Leopold made Congo his private fiefdom and employed a barbarous system of forced labor and terror through out Congo.   Five to eight million natives were killed during his time.   Because of this, Leopold was shy of being compared to famous tyrants such as Hitler and Stalin.   But the difference, writes Hochschild was that Leopold never saw the gore and smelled the blood of his actions: â€Å"†¦King Leopold never saw a drop of blood spilt in anger.   He never set foot in the Congo.† (p. 4) During his reign, Leopold grabbed lands, developed military dictatorship whose white officers he called the â€Å"Force Publique.† At its peak, there were some 19,000 conscripted African soldiers under only 420 white officers.   He also ordered forced or slave labor starting from the â€Å"rubber boom† phenomenon in the 1880’s.   This system would even outlive Leopold’s death.   Forced labor, according to Leopold was â€Å"the only way to civilize and uplift these indolent and corrupt peoples of the Far East.† (p. 37) Each laborer had a quota and to meet this, they would carry huge baskets of rubber on their heads for up to twenty miles a day.   The laborer’s wives and children would even be kept as hostages until they produce the required number of rubber.   Once they fail to meet their quota, death is bestowed upon them.   And this was justified by saying hundreds of heads cut off is only meant to push the other laborers harder.   An officer of Leopold once said, â€Å"My goal is ultimately humanitarian.   I killed a hundred people but that allowed five hundred others to live.† (p. 166) So-called heroes emerged during this time.   Political enemies of Leopold and journalists tried to end this culture of labor and terror. A Congo Reform movement was formed. Leopold tried to counter this by bribing editors and even using a pseudonym to write articles on his regime’s defense by himself.   Towards the end of his reign, he destroyed the evidence and turned the Congo State archives into ash, hoping to employ the â€Å"politics of forgetting.† Compared to other countries that were once under a â€Å"genocidal† rule, the Congo experience made little impact in popular consciousness. But nonetheless, the Congo experience was a telling account on how the powerful tried to achieve civilization and progress, ironically through barbaric systems.   It is also a classic tale of how the powerful sugar-coated their real intensions of horror and lust for power with philanthropy and benevolence. But over and above this, it tells the story of how heroes came into play and how the people of Congo, and other former colonies, struggled and survived the tests put up by their cruel and spiteful historical past.

The Hunger Games Example

The Hunger Games Example The Hunger Games – Book Report/Review Example Lecturer Review of The Hunger Games The Hunger Games entails a science fiction literary work, ed by Suzanne Collins in 2008.The voice is based on the direct experience of the 16 years old character called Katniss Everdeen. Katniss resides within the post-apocalyptic region of Panem, located in North America. The Hunger Games entails a yearly event where a boy and a girl, between 12 and 18, are selected to participate in a televised death battle. The review analyzes the experiences of the main character in the fictional work. Everdeen volunteers to participate in the Hunger Games, on behalf of her sister, despite the risks involved. This shows that she is full of passion and love for her family members. "As I hike along, I feel certain Im still holding the screen in the Capitol, so Im careful to continue to hide my emotions† (Collins 165) illustrates the attention that Katniss got during the Hunger Game. Katniss is a physically and mentally competent person, who has adequate str ength to defend herself from anger. She has superior hunting and survival abilities, which enable her overcome harm during the competition. Katniss is showed as a concerned character during the Hunger Games. She engages in looking for Peeta, when the game rules are reviewed to accommodate couple participation. She manages to locate Peeta in a hiding location. The main character also has adequate nursing knowledge. This is illustrated when she takes care of him until full recovery. Katniss is a good performance artist. She manages to act effectively through convincing the audience that she is falling in love, with the main intention of securing gifts from the sponsors and gaining favor from the audience. During the grand finale, she threatened to commit suicide. But the game makers address the issue by declaring Katniss and Peetas the 74th Hunger Games winners. â€Å"I bite my lip, feeling inferior† (Collins 142) explains that she didn’t like being subjected to cruel tr eatment, like fighting in public.Work CitedSuzanne, Collins. The Hunger Games. Scholastic Press. 2010. Print.

Report on Nutrition and Breastfeeding Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Report on Nutrition and Breastfeeding - Essay Example The Australian Breastfeeding Association and many other bona fide health institutions around the world consider breastfeeding as the best feeding practice that mothers are encouraged to comply to ensure optimal health and well-being of their children (â€Å"Why Breastfeeding is,† 2005; World Health Organization (WHO), n.d.a) -- and suggested positive effects have indeed inspired many to do so. Besides providing nutrition, breast milk is also believed to help spare a baby from a range of illnesses. In the year 2004, the Federal Government received a report about the alarming trend of the decline in breastfeeding rates among mothers as their babies reach the first few months (as cited in Godfrey, 2009). As a result, the Department of Health and Aging introduced the Australian National Breastfeeding Strategy 2010-2015 in response to the perceived threat to the health of the young Australians which is â€Å"recognized as a matter of national importance† (National Public Health Partnership (NPHP), 2004). As health providers, it is the responsibility of nurses to perform their designated roles in advocating proper breastfeeding practices and nutrition among infants in the community level in support to the thrust of promoting health and preventing illness in the population. Complementary Feeding - â€Å"Complementary feeding refers to feeds that are given after 6 months of age when breast milk along does not provide adequate nutrition to the growing infant† (Bhat, 2009, p. 43). Despite the fact that Australia is indeed one of the healthiest countries in the whole world, it cannot be denied that it still suffers from major health problems like most, if not all, of the countries around the world do. What makes Australia’s health status unique, however, is the presence of a considerable socioeconomic status diversity between its mainstream and Indigenous populations (Moodie, Harper, and Oldenburg, 2008, p. 4). Because it is

Poverty in America Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Poverty in America - Essay Example 15). In this regard, the current case analysis aims present an evaluation of the current situation through a stakeholder analysis using ethical theories. From case facts, it was revealed that poverty affects different segments of society: children, minority groups (particularly African Americans and Hispanics), women, widows, the homeless, and other groups who could have lost their jobs, became ill, or met some unfortunate and fortuitous events. Thus, the factors that were deemed contributory to poverty include: job loss, misfortune, illness, lack of income despite working full-time, insufficient government support, ineffective welfare programs, break-up of marriage, the need to support children alone, and even laziness or indolence. Children were identified as being significantly affected by poverty. Case facts revealed that the cause of poverty in children include poor nutrition, reported exposure to environmental toxins, as well as the presence of stress hormones that negatively impact of children’s growth. Accordingly, â€Å"children are the poorest age group in the nation. In 2012, children were 60 percent more likely to be poor than adults ages 18-64, and nearly two-and-a-half times more likely to be poor than seniors† (Childrens Defense Fund, 2014, p. 22). Thus, children who remain in poverty have been noted to sustain negative impacts including inability to finish education, avail of health benefits, and be preponderant to exposure to criminal activities. Concurrently, another stakeholder to poverty are women, especially those who got divorced, were left by their spouses, got widowed, or who need to support their children on their own. As such, women were noted to apply for more welfare and financial support. Likewise, other factors which were noted to be contributory to poverty of women is the unequal and discriminatory labor rates, when

The Integration Of Core Concepts And Frameworks In Health Studies Nursing Essay

The Integration Of Core Concepts And Frameworks In Health Studies Nursing Essay Introduction This assignment attempts to explore the integration of core concepts and frameworks in health studies. The purpose of the assignment is to analyse the writers current professional practice, focusing on the outcomes of reflection, models of health, focus for learning, methods of enquiry and occupational mode of practice. Where reflective accounts are used to demonstrate a relationship to current practice, the author will make these entries in the first person (Webb, 1992, Hamill, 1999). The author is a senior staff nurse within an acute and emergency care facility in the North West of England. To ensure anonymity and confidentiality no reference is made to either patients or staff (NMC, 2004). During the last three decades, many professional groups have taken up reflective practice. Bulman Schutz (2004) argue that this enhances learning and promotes best practice within nursing. It is seen as an appropriate form of learning and a desirable quality amongst nursing staff (NMC, 2002). There have been many attempts to define reflective practice, however, Atkins Murphy (1993) argue that the whole concept is poorly defined. Reflection and reflective practice is a process allowing the practitioner to explore, understand and develop meaning, highlighting contradictions between theory and practice (Johns, 1995). Moon (1999) defines reflection as a set of abilities and skills, to indicate a critical stance, an orientation to problem solving or state of mind. Reflection is a window through which an event or situation is broken down and evaluated upon in an attempt to understand what has happened, to improve practice and aid learning and development (Reed, 1993, cited in Burns Bulman, 2000). Kolb (1984) states that reflection is central in theories of experiential learning and argues that within nursing, this form of learning is the most dominant. Platzer, Blake Ashford (2000) state that there are many benefits to learning through reflection, however, they are critical of individual reflective accounts and acknowledge the barriers to this form of learning. They explain how group reflection is more potent when attempting to understand complex professional issues and believe that through sharing, supporting and giving feedback in these sessions will facilitate learning with greater effectiveness. Wilkinson Wilkinson (1996) share this view, but highlight the importance of respecting and maintaining confidentiality. Schon (1983) describes reflection in two ways: reflection in and reflection on action. The differences in these types of reflections are reflecting whilst the situation unfolds and reflecting retrospectively on an event (Greenwood, 1993, Fitzgerald, 1994). Atkins Murphy (1994) improve upon this and suggest that for reflection to make a significant difference to practice, the practitioner must follow this up with a commitment to action, as a result. Interestingly, Greenwood (1993) also states that reflection before action is an important preparatory element to reflective learning as it allows the practitioner to formulate plans ahead of situations arising. There are other writers on reflective practice and conflicting arguments exist about when best to reflect. (Wilkinson, 1999). There are some critics of reflective practice, these highlight issues including the surveillance and self-regulation of reflective practice (Taylor 2003). Bulman Schutz (2004) suggest that when bringing personal feelings and emotions into the public domain that this can act as a barrier to reflection. They also acknowledge other limitations to the reflective process, including a lack of effective tools for assessment, political and financial pressures and the knowledge and skills required by facilitators. Taylor (2003) proposes that due to the confessional nature of reflection, debate can be raised over the legitimacy and honesty of the process. Schutz (2007) states that insufficient research has taken place to assess the benefits of reflection in nursing, leaving some debate about its appropriateness. Taylor (2003) argues however, that reflective practice is considered a positive approach to learning and is an important educational tool. There are many models to guide a practitioner through the reflective cycle. Reflection was first explored by Dewey (1933), Boud et al (1985) Cooper (1975) Powell (1989), Jarvis (1992), Atkins and Murphy (1994), Reid (1993) and others. More recently, models used to guide reflective practice, include Gibbs (1998) Johns (1995), Bortons (1970), Smyth (1989) and others. Health is a broad concept and can embody a variety of meanings, of which there is no particular right or wrong answer. There is no ideal meaning of health, making it a highly contested topic (Aggleton, 1993). The word health derives from the old English word to heal (hael) meaning whole (Naidoo and Wills, 2000). This statement suggests that health relates to the individual and concerns their holistic well-being. However, the literature suggests that opinions vary and that some perspectives disagree. Health is defined in many ways, generally divided into two types of understanding; official and lay perspectives. The main difference between the two, is that one is the view held by professionals and the other represents the views of lay people (non professionals). Official definitions of health have two common meanings in every day use; positive and negative (Cribb 1998, Aggleton 1993). The positive view represents a state of well being and the negative view surrounds absence of disease. The World Health Organisation (WHO) (1946) encapsulated a holistic view of health, Health is a state of complete physical, mental and social well-being, not merely the absence of disease or infirmity. Whilst setting high targets to be achieved, this definition has been criticised for being too idealistic and impossible to attain (Aggleton, 1993). In view of the criticism, the WHO changed its definition: health is the extent to which an individual or group is able to realise aspirations, to satisfy needs and to change or cope with the environment. Health is therefore seen as a resource for everyday life not the object of living. Health is a positive concept emphasising social and personal resources as well as physical capabilities (WHO, 1986). This suggests that more recent definitions see health not as a state, but as a process towards the achievement of each individuals potential (Seedhouse, 1986). Negative definitions focus on the absence of disease or illness (Aggleton 1993, Naidoo Wills 2000). One definition of health suggests that people are healthy so long as they show no signs of bodily abnormality (disease). This definition fails to take into account how the person feels about themselves. The individual may feel ill in situations where health professionals are unable to find any underlying pathology (Aggleton 1993). Alternatively, an individual may have a disease and feel perfectly well. The main point being made here is that subjective perceptions cannot be overruled or invalidated by scientific medicine (Naidoo Wills 2000). The negative meaning of health is utilised by the medical model, which is explored later in the text. Whilst in the workplace, it is apparent to me (who is also a Registered Nurse) that both positive and negative meanings of health are used. Doctors focus on health from the negative viewpoint e.g. a doctor may review a patient and whilst not being able to find evidence of an acute illness, decides that the patient is fit to be discharged. Alternatively, I may focus on the positive view. In this context, a holistic approach to the patients health and social well-being is being explored, and therefore a comprehensive assessment of these needs are being made prior to discharge. As previously mentioned, lay beliefs are the views of those who are not professionally involved in health issues (Aggleton 1999). Whilst this is so, they must not be totally discounted as they can be as important as official definitions. They often influence the behaviour and understanding of an individual, and ultimately, the way they respond to health issues. An example of this can be demonstrated when reflection takes place after an incident e.g. a gentleman was admitted to the assessment area complaining of chest pain. After investigation, he was diagnosed with a myocardial infarction. Immediately after diagnosis, he remained on bed-rest for twenty-four hours, then after this period, the patient stated (when asked how he felt), that he felt well and had infact never felt better. At this point the patient proceeded in an attempt to get out of bed and mobilise locally. Thus, it was his belief (a positive view) that because he felt well (he had no symptoms of feeling unwell) then th is was a signal for him to carry on, in his normal manner, which was not the case. If the patient had been told he needed to rest, then it is likely that his behaviour would have changed. Beliefs about health can also vary from place to place (Aggleton 1993). Having nursed in various locations throughout the United Kingdom, my experience of this is first hand and from this experience, I share the views of Aggleton. There seem clear distinctions between health needs and health interpretations between different social class groups. e.g. in deprived areas, beliefs of health are that you just get by, however, in more affluent areas, health is not seen as merely being free from ill-health, but looks at other dimensions too, like keeping fit, eating healthily and being active. According to Jones (1994), health is subject to widely variable individual, social and cultural expectations, produced by the interplay of individual perceptions and social influence; suggesting that individuals create and re-create meanings of health and illness. This is done by our lived experiences. This view is supported by researchers, who have identified social class differences in concepts of health (Blaxter 1990, Calnan 1987). Their findings concluded that middle class respondents had a more positive view of health and found this to be linked to perceptions such as enjoying life and being fit and active. Through the same research, working class groups viewed health as functional and avoiding ill health. One explanation for these findings is that compared to working class people, middle class groups have greater control over their lives, due to income thresholds and job security, generating higher standards of living. According to Naidoo Wills (2000), this leads to people in different social classes holding different beliefs about autonomy and fatalism. These views are confirmed by my experiences in the workplace. The majority of patients I see are from working class backgrounds. This information is obtained from the patient during admission, when asked about their occupational status. It must be acknowledged however, that someones occupation doesnt necessarily denote their social group. These patients do have a tendency to view health as functional and this further supports the explanation offered by Naidoo Wills (2000). The United Kingdom is undoubtedly classed as a multicultural society, therefore it could be argued that a range of cultural views about health co-exist (Naidoo Wills, 2000). Alternative practitioners offer therapies such as acupuncture, reflexology and massage, which are based on cultural views of health and disease and run in conjunction with therapies offered by the National Health Service, which focuses on scientific medicine. The use of complementary alternative medicine (CAM) is largely unregulated but due to recent government pressures, a regulatory body to govern the use of some of these practices is to be set up (Hawkes, 2008). It is also evident that differences in chronological age and lifestyle also play a key part in influencing our views about health. For many young people, health may be seen as the ability to take part in sporting activities or being at the peak of their fitness (Blaxter 1990, Aggleton 1993). Alternatively, health for the older person is more likely to relate to the ability to cope and to be able to undertake a more restricted range of actions (Williams 1983, Aggleton 1993). It is clear from this discussion, that there are a variety of forms that can be taken from a concept. It is felt therefore that it would be useful to use an analytical framework which brings together defining features of concepts of health and demonstrates their relationship to each other. One such framework is by Alan Beattie (1987, 1993). Beattie (1987, 1993) suggests that concepts of health can be characterised by a focus on health as the property of individuals through to the property of people collectively, on a continuum. Further concepts can be seen as open to authoritative definition (or scientific principles), or alternatively as socially negotiable within the context of people concerned. This lead Beattie to set out two interlocking axis the horizontal and vertical axis. The horizontal axis represents individual people to families, groups and whole communities. The vertical axis represents a stance from expert led (authoritative usually represented by expert knowledge) to client led (negotiated using peoples own interpretations of their health and viewing them as experts in their own right) interventions. From this, the four quadrants of Beatties concepts were born. Biopathological models of health are related directly to the individual, them being the focus for treatment and free from illness or disease. Health is proclaimed in an authoritative manner through investigation and diagnosis. This model relates closely to the medical model of health. Biographical models of health focus on the individual subjective experience of health. Health is seen as part of everybodys life story and is therefore seen as being linked to our individual biographies. Health is not established through science but the personal opinion of the individual in the context of their lived experience. Environmental models view health as a property of populations as opposed to individuals. The emphasis is on the use of statistical data to describe epidemiology, in order to determine the health of the population. The communitarian concept states that health is the property of the social contexts of peoples lives in their communities. Health is seen to be influenced by how people respond to their material and cultural circumstances of their lives and not being shaped by authoritative monitoring of patterns of health. Beattie (1987, 1993) suggests that these models are not mutually exclusive. They can co-exist in differing circumstances, however, the emphasis may be more or less dominant. Having explored these models, it becomes evident that within my practice the Biopathological model is the most dominant between the members of the health care team e.g. a patient is admitted to the assessment unit with complaints of chest pain. The medical team (or the technician as Beattie would refer) would see the individual as the focus for treatment and will carry out expert, scientific led investigations. The diagnosis would then be proclaimed in an authoritative manner. This model has been criticised for being too narrow and it can be argued that medicine is not as effective as it is often claimed (Naidoo Wills 2000). The twentieth century has seen a reduction in mortality and increased longevity in developed countries and it is often assumed that medical advances have been responsible for this. McKeown Lowe (1974) would argue that this is not necessarily the case. In their historical analysis they concluded that social advances in general living conditions had been responsi ble for most of the reduction in morbidity, whereas the contribution of medicine had played a much smaller role. However, within the professions and institutes of medicine, mechanistic approaches to analysis are still dominant (Beattie et al 1993). In practice, the biopathological model of health is usually adopted when dealing with the nominated patient group, but it must be acknowledged that sometimes, due to the nature of nursing (even in an acute area), I may utilise other models within Beatties framework, particularly the biographical model of health. Here, the focus is still individual, but the care is negotiated as opposed to prescribed. Interestingly, the NMC (2004) code of professional conduct also advocates that patients be treated individually, with respect and with their best interests in mind. An example can be given to the reader of when this overlap occurs. A patient is admitted to hospital, following an acute exacerbation of chronic airways disease. The individual is seen by the doctor and in an authoritative manner prescribed a course of treatment, which included smoking cessation. The patient did not respond well to this demand. He believed that because he had been smoking for most of his adult life, that this did not contribute to his current health breakdown. Utilising previous experience in this area, I talked through the issues of smoking cessation and gave a rationale for the proposed treatment. I listened to the patient, with their concerns and anxieties and found that previous attempts at stopping smoking had been unsuccessful. The patient highlighted that no help had been offered previously from the health care team and that he had no financial compensation for his treatment. After a discussion about the support and available services, the patient accepted my offer to a free and confidential stop smoking service and agreed to a referral being sent. According to Beattie (1987, 1993) the focus for learning concerns the type of knowledge a health care practitioner needs in order to practice within their setting. Within the biopathological model of health, the focus for learning is that of essential knowledge applied by the competent worker (the technician). This is consistent with my focus for learning and is utilised frequently in every day practice. It is the most dominant over other focuses suggested by Beattie (1987, 1993) within other models of health. An example of when I might use this form of knowledge could be when managing a deep vein thrombosis (DVT) clinic. I assess the patients risk of having a DVT, then, by following the trusts protocol decide the patients management plan. To ensure the effective running of the clinic at a competent level requires me to have essential knowledge about the diagnosis and treatment of DVT including a thorough understanding of the anatomy and physiology involved, the treatments, radiologi cal investigations, complications and side effects to treatment. Carper (1978), suggests that there are four fundamental patterns or types of knowing in nursing. These are known as his taxonomys of knowing and include, the empirics, aesthetics, personal knowledge and ethical domains. The empirics element of his taxonomy relates to the science of nursing and having the ability to describe, explain and predict. The aesthetics dimension relates to the art of nursing. Personal knowledge relates to the knowledge that an individual has from their past experiences in nursing and the ethical component of Carpers taxonomy relates directly to the decision making, the rights and wrongs, holding values and applicating. A method of enquiry, concerns the formal ways in which knowledge is generated and used by practitioners (Beattie 1987, 1993), often referred to as research and is vital in informing practice (Rolfe 1996). Research has two main paradigms for which there are different terms. Here, they shall be referred to as positivism and interpretivism. Positivist research is concerned with facts based on objective information, which is tested and systemised e.g. a randomised controlled trial. Interpretivist research deals with meanings based on subjective information e.g. a patient satisfaction survey (Parahoo 1997). Previously, I have identified that the predominant method of enquiry in the workplace is the positivistic approach, directly relating to the biopathological model of health. In nursing, the use of evidence-based practice is prevalent and Naidoo Wills (2000) agree is firmly established. This is consistent with the use of randomised controlled trials to establish what forms of treatment are most effective for most people. Sackett, Rosenburg, Muir Gray, Haynes Richardson (1996), describe evidence based practice to be a conscientious, explicit and judicious use of current best evidence in making decisions about the care of individual patients. This suggests that evidence based practice is crucial to the effective delivery of care and to the role and status of the nursing profession (Hardey Mulhall 1994, Roper, Logan Tierney 1996). An example of positivistic research, used within my practice, would be the use of diabetes mellitus, insulin glucose infusion in acute myocardial infarctio n (digami regime) (see appendix 1, for summary of research findings). Following these findings, the digami regime has been implemented throughout the NHS Trust in which I am employed, and is now standard procedure for staff to use on the appropriate patients. The data to support the use of the digami regime evolved from randomised controlled trials, which Hardey Mulhall (1994), maintains provide high reliability. Further more, the randomised controlled trials have been described within evidence-based practice as the gold standard (Naidoo Wills, 2000). On the negative side, Parahoo (1997) argues that positivistic research studies human beings as objects and does not provide knowledge of the patients views of the treatment. Conclusion It is undoubtedly clear that health is a complex and multi-faceted area for discussion. There are many meanings and definitions to health with no simple answers. It has become clear that lay and professional views should be regarded equally due to their equal stature. The practitioner has always regarded these as so, but the essay has highlighted this important area and has increased my awareness of this for future clinical practice. The practitioner will continue to view health positively and holistically and will endeavour to promote this practice amongst other members of the multi-disciplinary team. The practitioner has learned that using an analytical framework is a useful tool when mapping concepts of health in particularly Beatties framework. The framework was easy to follow and relates well to practice. The focus for learning was found to be predominantly around applying essential knowledge. The method of enquiry that informs practice was dominantly positivism which linked closely with Beatties biopathological model. Not surprisingly, this model prevails as the most dominant in my clinical practice. From this module, I feel that I have developed both personally and professionally. The knowledge gained through the undertaking of further study has helped me bridge the theory practice gap and has made me more aware of issues surrounding this complex area of health. Appendix 1 This study was initiated to test the hypothesis that rapid improvement of metabolic control in diabetes patients with acute myocardial infarction by means of insulin glucose infusion decreases the high initial mortality rate and that continued good metabolic control during the early post infarction period improved the subsequent prognosis of myocardial infarction (Malmberg et al 1995, Malmberg et al 1994, Malmberg 1997). Conclusions from this study, support the immediate use of insulin glucose infusion followed by multi-dose insulin in diabetic patients with acute myocardial infarction (Malmberg et al 1995, Malmberg et al 1994, Malmberg 1997) References Aggleton. P. (1993) Health Routledge. London. Atkins. S., Murphy. K. (1993) Reflection: a review of the literature. Journal of advanced nursing. 18(8) 1188-1192. Atkins. S., Murphy. K. (1994) Reflective practice. Nursing Standard, 8(39) 49-56. Beattie. A., Gott. M., Jones. L., Sidell. M. 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